What is Glass?
Glass is made when sand is heated to a very high temperature, about 1700o C. The sand melts and on cooling changes into glass. The glass produced has outstanding physical properties and is used for specialist purposes such as spacecraft windows.
If a flux is added to the sand before heating, the mixture will melt and subsequently cool to glass at a much lower temperature, between 800o C and 900o C. However, the glass will have poor durability and may even dissolve in water. Typical fluxes include soda (sodium oxide) and potash (potassium oxide).
To make glasses stronger and more durable, a stabiliser is added. The most common stabiliser is lime (calcium oxide) while litharge (lead oxide) produces ‘lead crystal’ glass.
To make coloured or pot metal glass, other metal oxides are added to the sand, flux and stabiliser mixture e.g. manganese dioxide produces a much clearer and transparent glass. cobalt, chromium and selenium oxides give blue, green and pink colours respectively. Some ruby-coloured glass has gold added.
Stained Glass Windows
Stained glass windows are made up of pieces of coloured pot metal glass on which a dark ‘paint’ has been applied to show folds in drapery, facial features, etc. This ‘paint’ is made of powdered glass, iron oxide (the pigment which gives the dark colour) and flux. These are mixed with gum and water to produce a liquid that can be painted with a brush onto the surface of the glass. When put into the kiln, the powdered glass melts (at a lower temperature than the glass it is painted onto due to the flux) and fuses onto the glass surface. Different shades of paint can be obtained with metal oxides other than iron. The composition of the paint; the amount and type of flux and stabiliser, the temperature of and time spent in the kiln are all critical if the black paint is to remain permanently on the glass.
From the 16th century enamels become popular for producing colours on glass, there are some examples of this technique at St Edmund King and Martyr, East Mersea. Enamels are ground coloured glass mixed with a flux, gum and water which is painted onto the glass before firing in the kiln. Enamel painting reached its zenith in the 18th century with the fashion for copies of oil paintings on glass, but many examples have suffered due to poor firing in the kiln and in the composition of the enamel paints.
Once painted and fired in the kiln, the pieces of glass are held together with strips of lead called calmes to make a panel. Lengths of wire are then soldered onto the calmes. The panel is next placed into a window space which has horizontal iron bars across its opening. The strips of wire are tied to the iron bars to hold the panel in place and putty is finally applied around the edges to make the window weatherproof.
In the early 14th century it was discovered that if silver was painted on the glass surface then fired in a kiln, the glass was stained yellow. This meant that yellow features such as blond hair, gold jewelry, could be depicted on glass without the need of yellow pot metal glass being leaded into the panel.
Making a Stained Glass Window
The first step in making a stained glass window is to produce a watercolour or ink sketch of the proposed design, this is called a vidimus. When the design has been agreed, a full-scale drawing is produced on cartridge paper called the cartoon, this often shows the shapes of the pieces of pot metal glass which will be used to make up the window and an indication of the colours to be used.
The cartoon is then laid out on a long table and pot metal glass is cut to shape and laid on top of the cartoon. These pieces of glass are then painted and put in the kiln. After firing, the painted glass is inspected for faults then it is made up into a temporary panel so that it may be viewed by the donors, the people who are paying for the new window. Once agreed, the pieces of painted glass are leaded permanently into a panel, wires are soldered at strategic positions and the panel is transported in secure crates to where it is to be installed. There, the panel is attached to the tie bars with wire and putty applied to make the window weatherproof.
Above is a vidimus for a window at St Michael Kirby-le-Soken by A. L. Wilkinson. The background colours to the figurative panels are shown in two alternative colours.
The stained Glass windows
at St Margaret’S
John Hardman & Co. Ltd was founded in Birmingham in 1838 by John Hardman (1811-67) principally to make ecclesiastical metalwork. In 1845, persuaded by his friend A. W. N. Pugin (1812-52) he opened a stained-glass department with Pugin as the chief designer until his death in 1852. Hardman’s nephew John Hardman Powell (1827-95) was made a pupil to Pugin and he married Pugin’s eldest daughter Anne (1832-97) in 1850. On Pugin’s death, Powell became the chief designer.
Up to 1850, Hardman’s stained-glass output was exclusively for Pugin’s buildings, but thereafter stained glass was supplied to other leading architects most notably William Butterfield (1814-1900) who admired Pugin’s strict simplified, architectural style. Butterfield went on to give Hardman & Co some 50 commissions. On becoming chief designer, Powell began to develop his own style, more pictorial and incorporating complex scenes with figures in his distinctive, elongated S-shaped figures inspired by painters such as Simone Martini (c. 1284-1344), an Italian painter born in Siena and major figure in the development of early Italian painting greatly influencing the development of the International Gothic style.
Butterfield however held uncompromising views as to the subordinate position of the glass painter and had his own definite views on the design and role of stained glass in his buildings. At the start of the 1850’s Butterfield wished to enforce control of design which unsurprisingly led to disagreements between Powell and Butterfield who eventually terminated their association. Powell made much use of blue glass in his window designs which during the 1870’s took on a cool, steely tint. This, together with strong pictorial designs makes Hardman glass relatively easy to recognise. During the 20th century the name of the company changed to John Hardman Studios it ceased trading in 2008.
There is one Hardman window in the church, sVI which was made in 1871. By now the firm had moved aware from Pugin’s designs, often of full-length saints in a 14th century style setting, to pictorial scenes which were often crowded with figures as here where Cornelius giving alms and Dorcas distributing garments are depicted. The predominant blue colour of the background and the elongated S-shaped Dorcas are both features of John Hardman Powell’s work.
Clayton and Bell
John Richard Clayton (1827-1913) was born in London and went to Leigh’s Art School then the Royal Academy Schools where he studied sculpture. A talented artist, he provided drawings for books and the Illustrated London News and was friendly with members of the Pre-Raphaelites, particularly Rossetti with whom he exhibited at the Hogarth Club in 1858. Clayton worked with Sir Charles Barry on sculptures for the new Palace of Westminster and was Clerk of Works at Wells Cathedral in 1848-9. It was probably here that Clayton became interested in stained glass. He was noticed by the architects Richard Cromwell Carpenter for whom he designed a church window and Sir George Gilbert Scott, who employed him to assist with architectural drawing and figure designs in his practice.
Alfred Bell (1832-95) was born in Silton Dorset, the son of a farm worker. His skill at painting was noticed by his rector and mentor who introduced Bell, at 14 years of age, to Sir George Gilbert Scott. Scott was so impressed by his work that he took Bell on as a pupil in his London offices. Bell’s skill at using colour led him with Scott’s encouragement to concentrate on stained glass, working as a freelance designer for Powell and Sons and Nathaniel Laver – who was later to become a partner in Lavers, Barraud and Westlake, a large and important 19th century stained glass firm.
Between 1855 and 1858 Clayton & Bell, who were by now close friends, set up their own company with Scott’s encouragement and promises of many future commissions. Initially their designs were made up into windows by Laver, but they then entered into an arrangement with the newly formed company of Heaton & Butler which were to become another important 19th century stained glass firm.
Heaton & Butler and Clayton & Bell shared offices and a studio at Cardington Street, Euston Square. This arrangement was of benefit to both parties, the former providing technical advice on the construction of windows and the latter help on design issues. In 1861 Clayton and Bell moved to new premises in Regents Street, London. As the century progressed the firm produced greater numbers of windows and their production became akin to that of a production line. Clayton and Bell as individuals probably now had little personal involvement in the day to day running of the firm except for the most important commissions. The technical quality of their windows never fell and while designs were often re-used, they could produce some exceptional designs. A characteristic of their glass is the predominant use of blue, red and white, reminiscent of colours used during the thirteenth century windows at Canterbury Cathedral.
On the deaths of J. R. Clayton and A. Bell the firm continued under the direction of their sons, John Essex Clayton and John Clement Bell (1860-1944). The former son reportedly despised commercialism and studio life and left the firm in 1903. John Clement Bell’s son Reginald Otto Bell (1886-1950) joined the company in 1919 and instigated many changes within the company. Reginald’s son Michael Charles Farrar Bell ran Clayton and Bell from 1950 until his death in 1993.
There is one window by Clayton and Bell in the church, sIX which commemorates Charles Smart who died in 1901. (Check) Although made in or after 1901 (check) it is almost identical to their work some 20 years earlier with a predominantly blue, red and white palette and with elaborate canopy work the style is very much in the 15th century style. The window, depicting figures of Simeon and Anna can be compared with many other similar examples by Clayton and Bell in the presbytery at Rochester Cathedral. The earliest work of the new 19th century firms; Clayton and Bell, Heaton, Butler and Bayne and Lavers Barraud and Westlake is often their strongest and most original designs. This is shown well with further windows made by Clayton and Bell in the North transept also at Rochester Cathedral. Dating from 1859, they are completely different to the firms later style and not surprisingly very similar to Heaton, Butler and Baynes work at that time.
Clayton and Bell windows in Rochester Cathedral, 1859.
Ward & Hughes
In the early 19th century James Henry Nixon (1802 -1857) was in partnership with Hancock and Hunt producing enamel and glass colours for the Derby china factory. The partnership ended when Nixon went to work for the architect John Pike Hedgeland for whom he restored the late 15th century windows at St Neot’s church in Cornwall. By 1836 Nixon had formed a partnership with Thomas Ward (1808 – 1870) and as Ward and Nixon of 67 Frith St. Soho went on to produce a great number of widows. Nixon became less involved in the company from the start of the1850’s and in 1850 Henry Hughes (1822 – 1883) joined the company. In 1851 Hughes married Elizabeth Curtis and after Nixon’s death became Wards partner, the firm now being called Ward and Hughes. The company went on to supply the largest number of windows in the largest number of 19th century windows in East Anglia and a large number in Kent. Unlike many other 19th century firms, Ward and Hughes usually signed their windows, but occasionally they only have the name of Hughes.
Early Ward and Hughes windows from the 1860’s use a palette of strong colours using new glass produced by Powell and Sons in London and Chance brothers in Birmingham. This new glass suited well the mainly pictorial and boldly drawn designs.
On Hughes death, a relative from his wife’s family Thomas Figgis Curtis (1845 -1924) took over the firm and with his chief designer, George Palby, the design and colour palette used for their windows undertook a significant change. The previously used strong bright colours were gradually replaced with muted tints producing a silvery green tone. , a good example of which can be seen in the east window at All Saints Maldon. This may be partly due to the success of the stained glass firm belonging to Charles Kempe whose similar styles windows were very popular towards the end of the 19th and into the 20th century. Curtis ran the firm until his death, after which his cousin Curtis Edith Kibblewhite took until the firm ceased trading in about 1930. At St Mildred’s church in Tenterden there is an excellent set of windows which show the complete range of Ward and Hughes work and evolving style, along with two early windows by Lavers and Barraud, probably to designs by John Milner Allen. There are two late windows by Ward and Hughes in the church, the east window of 1897 depicting the Ascension and a further south aisle window sVII of 1923 depicting St John preaching to the crowd. Both windows show the influence of Curtis with muted colours still very well drawn and continuing with the medieval traditional of partly framing the scenes depicted with canopy work.
Lavers, Barraud and Westlake
Nathaniel Wood Lavers (1822-1911) and Francis Philip Barraud (1824-1900) were both working for Powell and Sons, which was producing stained glass windows from 1849. Lavers set up his own stained-glass company in 1855 but being a craftsman and businessman and not a designer he relied of talented artists to produce designs and cartoons. At first Lavers used Alfred Bell who later went on to form Clayton and Bell mentioned elsewhere, then Henry Stacey Marks. In 1858 Barraud joined Lavers and they went into partnership as Lavers and Baurrad the following year. Although Barraud had designed many windows for Powell’s, he never took on their more important commissions. With increased competition with other firms, the need for a permanent designer became apparent and on the recommendation of the architect William Burgess, Nathaniel Hubert John Westlake (1833-1921) joined Lavers and Barruad in 1858. Westlake along with several other freelance designers notably John Milner Allen were soon designing some of the best 19th century glass produced. Before long Westlake was deigning most of the firms’ windows and was made a partner in 1868 when the firm became known as Lavers, Barraud and Westlake and in 1880 Westlake became the sole proprietor.
Like other firms that started out at around 1860, the output of the firm grew so much that windows were being made on a production line, the strength and originality of the early designs had been lost. On Barraud’s death the firm became known as Lavers, Westlake and Co. and the windows then being made were often dull in colour. On the death of Laver the firm became known as Nathaniel Hubert John Westlake F.S.A and continued with a much smaller workforce until Westlake’s death. There are two windows by Lavers, Barraud and Westlake in the church. First is sIII, a single light window depicting St Margaret of Antioch of 1871. The second window the right, sV is a slightly later window of 1876 of two lights depicting on the left St James Major and on the right St John
At St Margaret’s feet her attribute, a dragon. After failing to submit to the Consul Olibrius, renounce her Christian faith, Margaret was tortured and placed in a prison cell. Here Satan appeared to her in the form of a dragon but could not harm her. Margaret was the beheaded. Although just a single light, the pictorial nature of the design is typical feature of Lavers, Baraud and Westlake’s output of this time. Margaret stands underneath stylised canopy work, a feature commonly seen in 14th and 15th century stained glass, while at the base of the light is a rectangular panel of grisaille work used from the 13th century.
The figures of James and john stand against a background of diamond shaped floriated quarries a technique that was again popular during the 14th and 15th centuries. Both windows are relatively brightly coloured and Margaret in particular shows the hand of Westlake.
Francis Spear
Born at South Norwood and after completing his secondary education at Battersea, Francis Spear (1902-79) attended the Central School of Arts and Crafts (later Arts and Design) where he became pupil Assistant to Martin Travers, a leading stained glass artist, the association lasting until the start of World War Two. In 1923 Spear graduated in Industrial Design with a specialisation in stained glass. Spear taught Lithography part-time at the Royal College of Art until 1948 and from 1929 until 1953 he was a part-time instructor in stained glass at the Central School. Spear’s first public commission came in 1925 when he designed a west window at Warwick School. The window was made at Lowndes & Drury in Fulham where he rented a studio from 1935 until 1941. After the war in which he served as a firefighter, Spear set up his own studio in Chelsea in 1946, then moved to Islington, and finally to Reigate in 1951. Spear was an important designer and made a major contribution to the reconstruction of churches damaged during the war, eventually producing over 300 stained glass windows.
Spear designed the north chapel east window, nII in the church in 1953.
Shelly Kitto
Shelly Kitto is a contemporary stained glass artist known for her intricate and expressive designs. She trained in glass art and design, developing a distinctive style that blends traditional craftsmanship with modern techniques. Kitto has worked on commissions for churches and heritage buildings across the country, creating windows that reflect both historical significance and artistic innovation.
In St Margaret’s Church, Kitto designed the tracery window on the south wall of the chancel in memory of Captain Dan Read, who is buried in the churchyard. The window is a striking tribute, combining rich colours and delicate details to honour his life and service.
